With the advent of the digital age, life has exponentially changed for those who choose to and are able to participate in it. It is important to notate the presences of choice and ability. Many people choose to not take full advantage of all the innovation made possible as a result of the digital age. And, unfortunately, some individuals are not able to participate actively during this time of rapid technological advancements because they are not financially able to or are not fully aware of its vast potential. For those actively engaged in the digital age, there requires a certain level of awareness and competency to be completely immersed in all the opportunities afforded to them through technology. This level of awareness and competency is achieved through what is now referred to as digital literacy.

In the past, literacy referred primarily to an individual’s ability to read and write. However, in the present, with the existence of an abundance of technological advancements, literacy has taken a broader meaning which now has to account for technological reading and writing which is partially in a different genre than print reading and writing. As a special education administrator, the availability and use of technology is especially relevant as a means of ensuring that students with special needs have access to the technological software and hardware needed to adequately function in their learning environment. It is often a paramount element of their success in the classroom both academically and socially. Ensuring that students with special needs, and typically functioning student know how to effectively utilize the technological resources available to them is accomplished by teaching and mandating a certain level of digital literacy. There remain questions regarding, how do teachers and students acquire digitally literacy competence and who is responsible for teaching it. Here in lies the fundamental challenge; which is to define the meaning of digital literacy and determine a method of gauging digital literacy competency. The video below discusses why digital literacy is such an importance concept.

This literature review explores the meaning of digital literacy as it is defined depending on the lens to which it is viewed. It also identifies varies sets of competencies suggested by scholars regarding the matter. Also examined in this review are the ways in which teachers and students are impacted by the concept of digital literacy competence. Lastly, several challenges to digital literacy and gaps in the research regarding this topic will be outlined. The need to increase digital literacy is inevitable. However, in order for it to be achieved, there must be common definitions and practices to ensure that participants in the digital world are able to fully navigate the terrain in a meaningful, productive, and safe manner.

Throughout the literature, digital literacy is defined in a wide variety of ways, all depending on the lens of the author. The video below provides a very basic definition of digital literacy as it is viewed through the lens of digital learners.

The video defines digital literacy as “having the right digital skills to achieve our goals (BBC Learning English, 2017).” This is a very simplistic meaning of the concept as it does not identify the digital skills being referenced in the definition. Another simplistic definition states that, “digital literacy refers to a particular set of competencies that allow you to function and participate fully in a digital world (Web Wise, 2019).” This definition, like the first, does not state the competences being indicated. The above mentioned definitions are grossly incomplete and do not provide a comprehension description of the concept and its affects on the literate verses the illiterate.

Kivunja and Williamson provide more complex definitions of digital literacy which they also view as an ability. According to Kivunja (2015), digital literacy is defined as “the abilities of individuals to understand and to recognize what information is needed, when it is needed, and where it can be found, critically evaluate its value, and be able to use it effectively for particular purposes, such as learning, creating new ideas and knowledge, and solving problems (p. 168).” This definition uses the information aspect of digital literacy as an input and the ability to locate and decipher that information as the output. Williamson’s (2011) definition is similar in that it also highlights an individual’s ability to find, arrange, comprehend, manipulate, and create information as part of digital literacy. He takes this definition further by notating that digital literacy also includes comprehension of technology to effectively communicate and work. Both definitions view digital literacy in the form of information gathering which involves a level of competency in the scheme of research and analysis.

As previously noted with Williamson, many scholars view digital literacy as a concept centered around creation and development. Ozdamar-Keskin et al (2015) described digital literacy as a concept involving the creation of social mores through the use of digital tools as needed. This definition is very different from the previous as it takes into account how digital literacy is impacted by the cultural and social norms within a group or society. This definition views digital literacy as a creative force as oppose to a set of competences or skills. Neumann, Finger, and Neumann (2017), define digital literacy in a similar manner, by indicating that it involves the use of technology to construct meaning and correspondences, as well as, analyze digital communications.

Unlike the definitions above which appear to have a more linear perspective on that concepts of digital literacy, the definitions below are more complex and multifaceted. Alsalem (2016) provides a four-part definition of digital literacy from the lens of students, which assets that it is “an essential skill that enables students to (a) learn about the world, (b) participate in society, (c) complete tasks for supporting betterment and (d) interact with surrounding environment through exchange of ideas and knowledge sharing (p. 205).” Alsalem provides a definition which implies the global aspect of digital literacy, as oppose to Ozdamar-Keskin et al’s cultural and social norms. Unlike the first two definition mentioned which consider digital literacy to include a set of skills or competences, Alsalem views it as the essential skill.

Just as there is no clear definition of digital literacy, there is no set list of digital literacy skills or competencies to reference. Instead, several scholars have devised digital literacy skills lists which indicate what is needed to be digitally literate depending on the audience. The diagram below from Web Wise (2019), which is a website that promotes technology education in primary and secondary schools, provides a list of digital literacy skills.

Web Wise Digital Literacy Skills/Competencies. Retrieved from https://www.webwise.ie/teachers/digital_literacy/

This list is intended for use by elementary and secondary school parents, teachers, and administrators in order to provide education regarding the skills and competences needed by students to effective navigate digital technologies. Although intended for implementation with a younger audience, these skills appear to be relevant for all audiences.

Examining the audience helps to understand the composition of the skills proposed.  Williamson (2011) provides the following list of Digital-Age Literacies for school age children. 

• Basic literacy – fluency with language and numbers

• Scientific literacy – knowledge of scientific processes to make good decisions

• Economic literacy – understanding of economic issues, weighing costs and benefits

• Technological literacy – how it works and how to use it effectively and efficiently

•Visual literacy – interpret, use, create images and video for specific purposes

• Information literacy – locate, synthesize, use and evaluate information from different media

• Multicultural literacy – understand and appreciate diversity in world culture

• Global awareness – recognize and understand relationships among international groups

This list is however more comprehension then that of the Web Wise diagram.  The intended audience is primary and secondary educators.  The purpose is to assist educators with preparing students for life in the twenty-first century's digital age.  This list is inclusive of culture and the global economy.  It does not include a section on safety, which is especially needed for younger users of digital technology.  

Although the content is similar, but more sophisticated in presentation, Ozdamar-Keskin et al (2015) provides a similar list, which is obviously intended for a more mature and experienced audience. Their list identifies sub-disciplines of digital literacy and provides definitions for all of them.

Digital Literacy Sub-Disciplines. Ozdamar-Keskin, et al (2015)

Each of the digital literacy sub-disciplines are broken down based on a type of digital tool, i.e. computer or a byproduct of the use of a digital tool, i.e. information, communication. All of the definitions include an ability that the individual must achieve in order to be considered digitally literate. While Ozdamar-Keskin et al’s list make a clear distinction between information literacy and computer literacy as separate sub-disciplines of digital literacy, Schmidt Hanbidge and Sanderson (2016), believe that some scholars view them as interchangeable. They assert that being knowledgeable in how to manipulate computer hardware is different than having the ability to manipulate information in a digitally literate manner. The primary audience of both Schmidt Hanbidge and Sanderson and Ozdamar-Keskin et al is college students using digital literacy for academic purposes.

Yamaç and Öztürk’s intended audience for the digital literacy insights they devised is also for college students utilizing digital literacy for research purposes.

Online Research and Comprehension Insights. Yamaç, A., & Öztürk, E. (2019).

Yamaç and Öztürk’s (2019) have identified three insights which examine the internet, online research, and digital dispositions as areas requiring digital literacy for students engaging in research. They present their insights in a scientific manner by indicating that users must be aware of their specific characteristics or the nature of their existence.

From review of the literature, many scholars provide a list of skills or completencies needed to be considered digitally literate, however, few examine the process of obtaining literacy. Neumann, Finger, and Neumann (2017) reveals that there is minimal understanding about the emergency of digital literacy skills and their influence on other forms of literacy. Neumann, Finger, and Neumann (2017) define emergent digital literacy skills as a believed level of comprehension, abilities, and beliefs which are antecedents to competence. This definition of emergent digital literacy is very subjective and lacks concrete markers to indicate the process of developing skill acquisition. Neumann, Finger, and Neumann (2017) has further defined proficient digital literacy as possessing the ability to manipulate, navigate, and evaluate digital information in a non-linear manner.  

Although digital literacy brings the expectation of further technological innovation with it, there are still many challenges to achieving this level of competency. Williamson (2011) suggests that school age students are armed with a high level of digital literacy as it pertains to their ability to manipulate technological tools, however this is not the case with regard to their ability to communicate or create in the digital arena. This indicates the need for continued instruction in this area. However, Neumann, Finger, and Neumann (2017) identifies that researchers have expressed a need to intellectualize a collective framework for digital literacy competency. As evident in the many definitions and varied skills and competencies identified by diverse scholars as being needed to be considered digitally literate, this has as of yet to be achieved. According to Grncharovska et al (2016), “there is still no existing consensus how this competence should generally be treated in the school curriculum (p. 108).” Currently, many school curriculums and policies focus on computer literacy, but very few are comprehensive and inclusive of digital literacy (Grncharovska et al (2016). Therefore, in order to enhance digital literacy, a come definition must be acquired and embraced by educators.

Students and teachers must recognize the complexities involved in being digitally literate and working towards achieving a set of agreed upon skills or competences to achieve this goal. Cope and Kalantzis (2017) argue that educators and students must "effectively harness the immense capacity that comes with connectivity without getting lost in its cacophony (p. 146)." It is apparent that most scholars are aware of and embrace the advantages of being digitally literate and connected. However, Cope and Kalantzis (2017) acknowledge how easy it can be for educators and students to become dissonant in their work possibly as a result of information overload and the vast array of options available. The image below displays the many spaces available in Soja’s Thirdspace. 

Fallin, L. (2016). A Cacophony of Spaces. Retrieved from https://leefallin.co.uk/tag/soja/

The illustrator, Lee Fallin (2016) developed this diagram to visualize the cacophony of spaces available in Thirdspace in order to depict its discursive magnitude which can be overwhelming and difficult to navigate and sift through. This is just one example of a technology software that has multiple layers of application. The entire digital realm is saturated with resources and tools for educators and students. The digitally literate educator and student must know how to navigate this environment in a manner that is meaningfully rooted in their purpose, goals, and objectives. 

The goal of digital literacy is twofold. First and foremost, the purpose of achieving digital literacy is to ensure that members of the digital world are able to adequately navigate the technology available to them in their environment. The second goal, as it relates to academia, is to prepare students for life and work in the twenty-first century's digital era. Research from Grncharovska et al (2016), indicates that high school age "female students [have a] growing interest and success in using computer[s], as well as greater readiness and initiative for individualized and active learning by computer (p. 112). This founding was unpredicted and astonishing especially considering the fact that in 2018, women held only 26% of jobs in the technology field according to the National Center for Women and Information Technology. However, in Grncharovska et al's (2016) study, female students rated slightly higher than their male counterparts in the areas mentioned above regarding digital literacy skills and usage.

There is an apparent gender disparity in the technology world of work. The graph below depicts the percentage of women in the workforce of major technology companies. 

Statista (2019, March 8). The Tech Word is Still a Man's World. Retrieved from https://www.statista.com/chart/4467/female-employees-at-tech-companies/

The graph differentiates technology jobs verses leadership position. It is evident that female employees hold between 17 to 30 percent of the technology jobs within these companies. This information is contradictory to the fact that female students rate higher than their male counterparts regarding interest and ability in the subject area of digital literacy application while in high school. This represents a gap in the research that requires further explanations and analysis. More information is needed to determine digital literacy competency rates based on gender and other demographic markers in order to influence funding, curriculum development, and learning design. Researchers must answer the question of why historically marginalized individuals, in this instance women, who possess higher levels of digital literacy competency are not advancing in the technology workforce.

In conclusion, digital literacy competency is a concept redefining the traditional meaning of literacy. Definitions for digital literacy are numerous and are more clearly delineated based on the intended audience. For example, the literature reveals more simplistic definitions of digital literacy for school age children and more complex definitions for those engaging in academic research. Also, vast in quantity are the number of identified skills and competencies outlined in order to achieve digital literacy. Again, they are more complex based on the audience. Nevertheless, each set of skills addresses the need to identify and manage digital information. All of the skills outline whiat is to be considered effective use of digital communication to express meaning. However, not all skills list discuss the idea of online safety which is important no matter the age of the audience.

Even though we have been in the digital age for almost fifty years, still much growth is needed to ensure that people are digitally literate. Apart from the obvious challenges of lack of digital connectivity, a major challenge is not having a common language to promote digital literacy. This makes it even easier for educators and students to get caught up in the cacophony of digital media and its vast offerings. More research is needed to assist in creating that common voice to define and outline the competencies needed for digital literacy acquisition.  Additionally, more research is needed to identify inequities in the technology workforce regarding diversity of employeement given the research available which indicates that students in maginalized subgroups rate equal to or greater than there peers in the areas of digital literacy competency, interests, and application .