Cognitive Biases & Logical Fallacies
Learning Module
- Creator(s):
Learning Module Details:
This learning module has been designed for The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU) course ELC2014 Advanced English for University Studies. I have taught multiples sections of this course over the last two years and have been continuously developing my own activities and materials to supplement the core assessments and replace some of our in-house textbook materials. During the course, students must
The learning module can be used as an online supplement for the course materials in Unit 1: The Research Process & Academic Discussions and Unit 2: Academic Argument. It is particularly relevant to The Research Process and Critical Reading sections of Unit 1 and the What makes a good argument? section of Unit 2. As I am currently unable to replace or radically alter the assessments in this standardized course, the assessment and peer review are adapted from Assessment 1.
Target Learners:
The target learners are students enrolled in ELC2014 Advanced English for University Studies, who are mostly Year 1 and Year 2 students from all undergraduate degree programs at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. These students' English proficiency levels are usually B2 and C1 in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).
Duration:
4-8 weeks
Introduction
Do you ever find it difficult to identify which information you should trust and use as evidence on the internet (or even in academic articles)? Do you often struggle with organizing your ideas and writing logical and convincing arguments for your assignments? Can you even trust your own brain?
The purpose of this Learning Module is to introduce the concepts of cognitive biases and logical fallacies in the interest of helping you perform better in the research process and academic writing process. Developing your critical thinking skills by understanding what constitutes cognitive biases and logical fallacies can aid you in searching for credible information, reading texts critically, using evidence and arguments from academic sources appropriately, applying logical reasoning, and developing strong, objective arguments in your writing.
Intended Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this learning module, you will be able to:
Cognitive Biases
According to Leighton (2010), "Cognitive bias is a general term used to describe a tendency to make a systematic error in thinking or reasoning...Unless actively avoided, cognitive biases can influence the manner in which human beings think about planning, executing, and interpreting data collected for research studies" (p. 160). Recognizing our cognitive biases can help us make better decisions during the research process when we are searching for information, critically reading and evaluating information, and crafting arguments.
The following video introduces more about the nature of cognitive biases:
| (Big Think, 2014) |
We will take a closer look at a few common cognitive biases in more detail in Lessons CB1-CB4, but there are MANY. The image below shows a codex that organizes the cognitive biases we experience. You can access an interactive version of this codex here: The Cognitive Bias Codex.
Logical Fallacies
According to Nordquist (2019), "A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid. It is also called a fallacy, an informal logical fallacy, and an informal fallacy. All logical fallacies are non sequiturs—arguments in which a conclusion doesn't follow logically from what preceded it." Logical fallacies can have a severe negative impact on the quality of your writing as they weaken your arguments, are often unethical to use, and may limit your ability to persuade an audience. Recognizing logical fallacies in others' arguments and writing can help us to avoid them in our own.
The following video introduces formal and informal fallacies:
| (Wireless Philosophy, 2016b) |
We will examine a few types of logical fallacies in LF1-LF4, but there are MANY of these too. For an extensive list of logical fallacies, see the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Fallacies. The image below provides some basic definitions and humorous examples of some of the most common logical fallacies:
Learning Objectives and Rationale:
The purpose of this Learning Module is to introduce the concepts of cognitive biases and logical fallacies in the interest of helping students perform better in the research process and academic writing process. The students are in the process of developing their critical thinking and English language skills, and they often struggle with searching for credible information, reading sources critically, accurately paraphrasing and representing evidence and arguments from academic sources, applying logical reasoning, and developing strong, objective arguments free of significant bias in their writing.
The design of the content and activities in this learning module are based on a content-based language teaching (CBLT) approach. CBLT is for teaching "non-linguistic curricular content...to students through the medium of a language that they are concurrently learning as an additional language" (Lyster & Ballinger, 2011, p. 279). CBLT content can be adapted from any field or topic-area, but the instruction and activities should be designed to support the development of language and literacy skills. in this module, I have used content from the fields of philosophy, psychology, rhetoric and sociology, and students are asked to complete tasks designed to develop advanced reading and writing skills in English. To learn more about how CBLT is used in foreign language teaching, please refer to the following edited book:
Cammarata, L. (Ed). (2016). Content-Based Foreign Language Teaching: Curriculum and Pedagogy for Developing Advanced Thinking and Literacy Skills. New York, NY: Routledge.
ELC2014 and PolyU Learning Outcomes:
The learning module is designed to support students in achieving the following ELC2014 Advanced English for University Studies Unit 1 and Unit 2 learning outcomes:
By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to:
By the end of Unit 2, you should be able to:
The learning module is also aligned with two of the Learning Outcomes for PolyU Graduates at Undergraduate Degree Level:
Learning Module Intended Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this learning module, students will be able to:
What are Heuristics?
Heuristics are ways that we process information to make decisions and judgments. They are often described as "mental shortcuts" that allow us to function in the world without having to extensively research and analyze every situation and piece of information we encounter. Although heuristics are helpful most of the time, they sometimes lead to errors in judgment (Bautista, 2019).
The following video introduces heuristics and some of the problems:
| (Learn Liberty, 2017) |
The next video provides more information about 3 types of heuristics: availability, representativeness and base-rate:
| (appsychfun, 2015) |
Comment (50-100 words)
Based on the information about heuristics in this lesson, it may not be wise to trust our initial observations, judgments and conclusions regarding a phenomenon, current event or research topic. Have you ever experienced or know anyone who has experienced these types of errors in judgment? Describe a personal example and suggest some strategies one could use to avoid potential errors in judgment. Comment on 3 other students' comments.
Update (100-200 words)
Find an example of when heuristics led to an error in judgment in society or the media. You can use videos, images and/or text to describe and illustrate the example. Be sure to identify the heuristic being used and explain how and why it led to an error in judgment. Also try to explain what could have been done to prevent this error and/or what should be done to rectify this error. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of the comment activity is give students a basic start in the process of analysing evidence and arguments for academic research and academic writing. The purpose of the update is to give students practice in arguing against or discrediting potential weak arguments and weak evidence that they may encounter in their research. It also allows for them to develop a basic counterargument.
Supplementary Resources:
Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment: http://perso.ens-lyon.fr/jacques.jayez/Cours/LogRais/ProbRais/Heuristics_and_Biases.pdf
Additional Video and Quiz: https://study.com/academy/lesson/heuristics.html
The Framing Effect
The framing effect is a type of cognitive bias where people's decision-making is effected by how information is presented. For example, people will interpret and respond to the same information differently if a writer uses language with positive or negative connotations (see the above image). According to the SAGE Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2009), "People's thinking and their decisions are influenced by the way situations and possible out comes are described. The framing effect is best illustrated by a now famous example from Kahneman and Tversky" (p. 209-210). The Framing Effect and this example are explained in the following video:
| (PsychExamReview, 2017) |
Comment (50-100 words)
What are some examples from business, politics, the news media or academic research where information is framed in a way to make it seem more positive or more negative to affect people's opinions or behavior? Describe and explain two or three examples, and then comment on 3 others students' comments.
Update (200-300 words)
Find an example of a choice or pro-con argument, and write two short paragraphs about the choice or argument. In the first paragraph, write in a way to make one choice or one side of the argument seem more appealing. In the second paragraph, write in a way to make the other choice or the other side of the argument seem more appealing. You should use the same facts, statistics and examples in both paragraphs; you should only change the language and presentation style that are used to frame the information. Feel free to include images or graphs in your update. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of this lesson and the comment activity is to guide students not only critically evaluating evidence and arguments based on the content, but also on how the information is presented. The purpose of the update activity is to have students practice objectively writing about both sides of an issue in preparation for presenting arguments and counterarguments in their essays.
Supplementary Resources:
Additional Video and Quiz: https://study.com/academy/lesson/framing-effect-definition-examples.html
Optional Reading: https://www.psychologytoday.com/hk/blog/insight-therapy/201012/framing-your-most-important-and-least-recognized-daily-ment
Confirmation Bias
Does the comic above remind you of your research process? If so, you may be suffering from confirmation bias. According to Jeanes (2019), confirmation bias is "the tendency to seek, favour, or recall information that confirms what one already believes to be true. This may be achieved by the selective way in which data is collected (focusing on collecting evidence that supports one’s ideas, rather than collecting all relevant evidence), recalled (how easily and readily one recalls information and what information one remembers) or how it is interpreted (one’s tendency to interpret evidence in a way that suits one’s cause)." Confirmation bias can have a significant negative impact on the validity, comprehensiveness and overall quality of one's reasearch
The following video is an artistic answer to the question "What is Confirmation Bias?":
| (Bergmann, 2016) |
Confirmation bias is especially a problem in current times due to how the modern internet functions and how people receive information from news feed algorithms that select information for them. In the next video, Eli Pariser describes "filter bubbles" and how this leads to bias and affects our search habits:
| (Big Think, 2018) |
Comment (50-100 words)
It has been claimed that all people exhibit confirmation bias to some degree, and in order to overcome it, one has to actively challenge their own thinking and be open to new information that may contradict one's deeply held beliefs. Can you think of any examples of times that you may have been biased when searching for information or forming an argument? Have you ever changed your opinion on an issue after encountering new information? Describe your experiences in your comment, and then comment on 3 other students' comments.
Update (150-300 words)
Think of a topic that you have a strong opinion about, and think of one or two opinions that disagree with your perspective. Search the internet to find articles, videos and other information that support the opinions with which you disagree. Write one or two paragraphs presenting evidence and arguments that support and explain these opinions. Try to be neutral in the paragraphs, and write about the ideas you disagree with as objectively as possible. You can also include any videos or other media you find. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of this lesson and the update is to encourage students to find both sources support their thesis statements and sources that do not support their thesis statements when conducting research for the position argument essay. The purpose of the comment activity is to encourage students to question their own preconceptions about their topic and be willing to change their opinions and make adjustments to their central arguments as they find new evidence during the research process. It also builds upon the previous update and requires more practice objectively writing about both sides of an issue in preparation for presenting arguments and counterarguments in their essays.
Supplementary Resources:
Additional Reading and Quiz: https://study.com/academy/lesson/confirmation-bias-definition-examples-psychology.html
Related topic: selective exposure
Optional Video "Bias in our media choices":
| (The University of Texas at Austin, 2012) |
Illusory Truth Effect
The Illusory Truth Effect, also referred to as the Truth Effect, is a phenomenon that research has found to affect almost everyone, no matter how if one is well-educated and a skeptical, critical thinker. It is "a tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has been stated multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity (accuracy)" (Houlihan, n. d., p. 13). This means that we will start to believe information that we see over and over, even if it as not true, because the information is easier to think about (sometimes referred to as higher processing fluency or cognitive ease).
The following video explains in more detail and provides clear examples:
| (Veritasium, 2016) |
Comment (50-100 words)
When is cognitive ease a good thing and when is it problematic? Can you think of any examples from your life? Can you think of any other examples of the Illusory Truth Effect that you have seen or experienced? Explain what you think about cognitive ease and describe relevant personal examples. Comment on 3 other students' comments.
Update (100-200 words)
We have looked at a few types of cognitive biases in these lessons, but there are many more to explore. For this update, you should create you own lesson on a new cognitive bias. You can find other types here (yourbias.is) and here (The Cognitive Bias Codex). Try to choose one that is not being used by another student. In the update, you should provide a brief definition and one or two videos/images/graphs that explain and illustrate the cognitive bias. You can also write about how the bias may affect the research process or academic writing process. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of the comment activity is to reinforce students' critical thinking and analytical skills. The purpose of the update activity is to give students an opportunity to conduct their own research on a topic and present information using paraphrasing or direct quotation. This update will also allow for crowdsourcing additional lessons on other cognitive biases. Students can learn more from each others' updates, and the higher quality updates could potentially be adapted and incorporated into a future iteration of the learning module.
Supplementary Resources:
ScienceBlogs: The Truth Effect and Other Processing Fluency Miracles: https://scienceblogs.com/mixingmemory/2007/09/18/the-truth-effect-and-other-pro#trutheffect1
Research shows nobody is immune: https://digest.bps.org.uk/2019/06/26/higher-intelligence-and-an-analytical-thinking-style-offer-no-protection-against-the-illusory-truth-effect-our-tendency-to-believe-repeated-claims-are-more-likely-to-be-true/
Cognitive Bias Cheatsheet: https://medium.com/better-humans/cognitive-bias-cheat-sheet-55a472476b18
yourbias.is: https://yourbias.is/
The Cognitive Bias Codex: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Cognitive_bias_codex_en.svg
False Dilemma / False Dichotomy
You are either with us or you are against us. There is the right answer and there is the wrong answer. People should either adopt so-called "Western values" or so-called "Chinese values." These are examples of false dilemmas or false dichotomies. We are often presented with a set of two options like these, but often these do not accurately represent the array of choices one actually has in a given situation or the different positions one can take on a given topic. Most issues and academic subjects are much more complex, and there is usually greater amount of uncertainty and not one clear right answer and one clear wrong answer.
The UNC Writing Center (2019) describes how students often create this logical fallacy in their writing: "the arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first place. But often there are really many different options, not just two—and if we thought about them all, we might not be so quick to pick the one the arguer recommends."
In the following video, John Corvino defines false dilemma and provides several clear examples:
| (Corvino, 2018a) |
The false dilemma fallacy or the false dichotomy fallacy is also sometimes referred to as the black and white fallacy. The following video describes some more examples of this type of logical fallacy:
| (PBS Idea Channel, 2014a) |
Comment (50-100 words)
Sometimes writers setup false dilemmas or false dichotomies when arguing for their postion in an essay. Can you think of examples of false dilemmas or false dichotomies that you have seen in essays or other media? How can you avoid this logical fallacy in your position argument essay? Describe one or two examples and explain ways that you can avoid false dilemmas in your writing. Comment on 3 other students' comments.
Update (150-300 words)
Choose a topic or choice that is often presented as a false dilemma or false dichotomy. You can use your position argument essay topic if you like. In the update, write one paragraph about the topic and two sides of the argument that are commonly presented as the only two options. In a second paragraph or list, introduce some of the additional options one could choose or positions one could take in regards to the topic or choice. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of this lesson and the comment activity is to help students avoid developing weak, one-sided arguments in their essays. The update activity is meant to guide students in finding additional arguments and counterarguments related to their topic that they can consider including in the position argument essay.
Supplementary Resources:
The Writing Center (UNC) - Fallacies: https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/fallacies/
Examples of Fallacies: https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-fallacies.html
Hasty Generalization
According to A Dictionary of Philosophical Logic (2009), "Hasty generalization (or converse accident) is the informal fallacy that occurs when one draws a general conclusion from a sample that is too small, biased, or otherwise unrepresentative." Overgeneralizations and stereotypes are usually considered to be types of hasty generalizations.
The following three short videos provide slightly different definitions of hasty generalization and explore several different examples:
| (Nanni, 2015) |
| (Carneades.org, 2014) |
| (Wolf, 2015) |
Comment (50-100 words)
Why do you think people make hasty generalizations? Comment on 3 other students' comments.
Update (100-200 words)
If we do not have enough data or concrete evidence to make a generalization or come to a definite conclusion, we need to use hedging language (link to explanation and examples) when analyzing the evidence, describing trends and possibilities, and forming arguments. Write a paragraph related to your position argument essay topic for this update and try to use hedging techniques appropriately. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of this lesson and comment activity is have students recognize hasty generalizations and understand why people sometimes rely on them in order to help them avoid overgeneralization in their essays. The purpose of the update is to reinforce the hedging techniques that will be introduced and practiced during classroom instruction before this lesson in the learning module.
Supplementary Resources:
Hedging: https://typely.com/blogs/entry/2-why-we-use-hedging-language-and-its-impact-on-our-writing/
Slippery Slope
If we allow scientists to continue to send radio signals into space, aliens with advanced technology will eventually detect them and travel to Earth to enslave the human population and destroy life on Earth as we know it. Sounds illogical, right? This is an extreme example of the slippery slope fallacy.
The slippery slope fallacy is committed when a writer "claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there’s really not enough evidence for that assumption" (UNC Writing Center, 2019). The writer argues that "a relatively innocuous or small first step will result in seriously harmful or otherwise undesirable consequences that will be difficult, if not impossible, to prevent", but there is little to no proof that the first step will lead to any of the following results (Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary, 2015).
In the following video, John Corvino briefly describes some common slippery-slope arguments:
| (Corvino, 2018b) |
The next video from Wireless Philosophy provides a more in-depth explanation of the slippery slope fallacy:
| (Wireless Philosophy, 2017) |
Comment (50-100 words)
People make slippery slope arguments very often when discussing political and social issues. Think of examples of slippery slope arguments that you have witnessed being used in Hong Kong, mainland China or another country. Describe these examples and how they have affected your life if possible. If you need to argue against a slippery slope argument, what would be the best strategy? Comment on 3 other students' comments.
Update (100-200 words)
Let's have a little fun in this update. Develop your own conspiracy theory by creating an extreme slippery slope argument. You need to describe an initial choice or action that sets off a chain of events and then explain how each consequence will lead to the next. You can use videos, images and other media in creative ways to "prove" your fake theory. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of the comment activity is to have students critically evaluate fallacious or weak arguments presented in society and the media in preparation for doing so with academic sources and other texts. They can also begin to strategize on how to effectively argue against fallacious or weak arguments in academic writing. The purpose of the update activity is to provide a short break from the more serious research and writing being done in class while also leading them to understand the extent to which slippery slope arguments are illogical and ineffective.
Supplementary Resources:
Additional slippery slope examples and strategies for responding slippery slope arguments: https://effectiviology.com/slippery-slope/
Strawman Fallacy
A strawman argument is when a person misrepresents another's opinion or argument (building a strawman, which is easy to burn) in order to make it easier to disprove or discredit (burning the strawman). Writers commit the strawman fallacy if they make changes to or only focus on one aspect of arguments and evidence that contradict their own argument. They attempt to make the opinions that disagree with them seem weaker than they actually are to make it easier to prove their own opinions to be correct.
"The basic structure of the argument consists of Person A making a claim, Person B creating a distorted version of the claim (the 'straw man'), and then Person B attacking this distorted version in order to refute Person A's original assertion. Often, the distorted interpretation is only remotely related to the original claim. The opposing argument may focus on just one aspect of the claim, take it out of context, or exaggerate it" (Straw Man Fallacy Examples, n.d.).
The following two videos explain the strawman fallacy and provide several examples of when it is used in an attempt to win an argument:
| (PBS Idea Channel, 2014b) |
| (Wireless Philosophy, 2016a) |
Comment (50-100 words)
Think of some strawman fallacies that are used when people discuss social or political issues in Hong Kong, mainland China or another country. Describe an example and explain how it misrepresent others' opinions or arguments. What do you think is the motivation for committing this logical fallacy? Comment on 3 other students' comments.
Update (100-200 words)
This update will be similar to what you did for the "CB4. Illusory Truth Effect" update. For this update, you should create you own lesson on a logical fallacy not presented in this learning module. You can find other types here (yourlogicalfallacyis.com) and here (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Fallacies). Try to choose one that is not being used by another student. In the update, you should provide a brief definition and one or two videos/images/graphs that explain and illustrate the logical fallacy. You can also write about how the fallacy may affect the quality of a research paper or argumentative essay. Comment on 3 other students' updates.
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of the comment activity is to reinforce students' critical thinking and analytical skills. It also builds upon the previous lesson by having students do more critical evaluation of fallacious or weak arguments common in society and the media in preparation for doing so with academic sources and other texts. The purpose of the update activity is the same as the update in "CB4: The Illusory Truth Effect". It gives students additional practice conducting their own research on a topic and presenting the information using paraphrasing or direct quotation. This update also allows for the crowdsourcing of additional lessons on logical fallacies. Students can learn more from each others' updates, and the higher quality updates could potentially be adapted and incorporated into a future iteration of the learning module.
Supplementary Resources:
yourfallacy.is: https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com/
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Fallacies: https://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/#InsufficientStatistics
Assessment 1: Writing a Draft Position Argument Essay (20%)
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Assessment 1
No introduction or conclusion is required for this submission – see exemplars on LEARN@PolyU. Academic articles cited should be full-length texts from academic journals or books with a named author (authors) or institution and a list of references. Most editorials, advertisements, newspapers, magazines and websites (e.g. Wikipedia) are not peer reviewed and therefore not considered academic sources. |
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Submission via LEARN@PolyU on DATE, TIME
You can access the submission link from DATE, TIME – start of Week 1. After you click ‘Confirm’ to upload your submission, Turnitin will generate a digital receipt. Please go to the Turnitin Document Viewer and download this receipt, or save a screenshot of it, as proof of successful submission in case of any technical issues later. |
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If your topic is similar to your classmates’, you may collaborate and research the topic together (the essay will still need to be written individually). |
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The following topics, including those that have been covered in ELC1012, ELC1013 and the ELC2014 course notes, are not allowed:
NOTE: It is against University regulations to submit work you have completed for one course to another course. |
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| Assessment criteria | ||||||||||||
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Content (30%): a specific, arguable position on the topic; persuasive arguments to defend the thesis based on critical evaluation of evidence, including counterargument; thesis supported with relevant and detailed support using academic sources Organisation (20%): clear and logical connections between ideas throughout the writing; paragraphs related to the thesis statement; different methods to connect ideas, such as transition words and phrases Language (30%): clear communication of meaning with accurate grammar and vocabulary appropriate to academic style Referencing (20%): accurate in-text citations, reporting structures and reference list according to the chosen referencing convention (Reference list is only required for final essay.) |
Peer Review
You will be assigned to peer review two of your classmates' essays using the rubric and checklist below. You will receive links to the essays from me, and you can provide feedback and corrections through Google Docs or Microsoft Word in addition to completing the rubric and checklist. After finishing the peer reviews for both classmates, please upload the rubrics and checklists to our shared folder.
Pedagogical Rationale:
Assessment 1: Writing a Draft Position Argument Essay is a formative assessment aimed at giving students the opportunity to develop their initial arguments and support them with evidence from credible academic sources and allowing for the provision of peer and instructor feedback before final submission of a fully developed essay. The following knowledge and skills will be reinforced during the course of researching and writing for the assessment:
Assessment 1 will be revised after peer feedback and instructor feedback before being submitted for Assessment 3: Writing A Final Position Argument Essay. The students will also present their topic, answer questions and discuss each others' topics in Assessment 2: Giving an Oral Defence. Additional details on the other two assessments can be found in the "ELC2014 Information for Students" document below.
Supplementary Resources:
Purdue Online Writing Lab: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html
Thank you for completing the learning module! Please complete the following survey to share your opinions and reflections: Online Learning Module Survey: Cognitive Biases and Logical Fallacies
Pedagogical Rationale:
The purpose of the survey is to collect students' opinions about the learning module to inform the revision process and determine if the learning module should be used in additional courses and continued to be used in ELC2014 in future semesters. The survey also includes questions designed to facilitate student reflection on the learning process, research process and writing process.
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appsychfun. (2015, December 8). Types of heuristics availability, representativeness & base [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSFHFfevfms
Bautista, P. (2019). Types of heuristics: Availability, representativeness & base-rate. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/heuristics.html
Bergmann, J. (2016, July 27). What is confirmation bias? [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOjIAiJCNIk&t=
Big Think. (2014, June 18). Cognitive Biases 101, with Peter Baumann [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AK0GYBTNx5Q
Big Think. (2018, December 18). How news feed algorithms supercharge confirmation bias | Eli Pariser [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prx9bxzns3g
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Corvino, J. (2018a, October 8). False dilemma [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ua74hdBhfI
Corvino, J. (2018b, October 8). Slippery-slope arguments [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=drz0Px10xss
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Hasty generalization. (2009). In R. T. Cook, A Dictionary of Philosophical Logic. Edinburg, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
Houlihan, T. (n. d.). Common Biases & Heuristics. BehaviorAlchemy. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5a0b6db9b1ffb64ac801b300/t/5b80260c898583f690297298/1535125005111/Common+Biases+and+Heuristics.pdf
Jeanes, E. (2019). A Dictionary of Organizational Behaviour. UK: Oxford University Press.
johnhain. (2016, February 16). Polarization opposition conflict judgement duality [Image]. Retrieved from https://pixabay.com/illustrations/polarization-opposition-conflict-1201698/
Learn Liberty. (2017, September 25). What are heuristics? [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ReFqFPJHLhA
Leighton, J. P. (2010). Cognitive biases. In A. J. Mills, G. Durepos & E. Wiebe (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Case Study Research (pp. 159-161). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc.
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