This CG Scholar Learning Module of six updates support teachers to understand how assessment can be used to enable learning.
Assessment for learning, New Learning, formative assessment.
Prominent researchers in this area contend that a lack of change in assessment has inhibited formal educational environments from equipping future citizens for twenty-first century society (Broadfoot, Oldfield, Sutherland, & Timmis, 2014). Education provision is becoming out of step with community views and needs, which call for a future-focussed education. In alignment with this future direction, the theme of reducing summative assessments to develop self-regulated learners is recommended (Adie, Addison, & Lingard, 2021; Boud & Soler, 2016; Broadfoot, Oldfield, Sutherland, & Timmis, 2014). The desired future compels educators to embed a creative and informed approach to assessment that privileges enables learning. This is the cornerstone of this learning module.
I have been a tutor for pre-service teachers since 2016, in the course Assessment in the Secondary Context, under the guidance of Dr Kellie Buckley-Walker (Subject Coordinator) at the University of Wollongong. I have also been a postgraduate student in the Master of Education (Australian Catholic University) course Policy and Practice in Assessment: Current Issues and Research. I am also enrolled in a course Assessment Literacy for Teachers, in my role as a mentor, through the University of Sydney, under Professor Jim Tognolini's expert tuition. This learning module was created for Assessment for Learning, as part of my studies for a Doctor of Education. I have studied and taught aspects of assessment for a significant time. It has pushed my knowledge and understanding beyond imagined limits. The image below sums up my experience with the content area of assessment. Even with this extensive experience, I am at the beginning of the "I know nothing" (Expert) phase. Assessment is complex and adaptive and reflects the learning priorities of systems, educators and students.
I have planned this learning module to give teachers the opportunity to reflect on their beliefs and attitudes, and to consider how their approach links to different models and perspectives. It also offers teachers space to consider how the purpose of assessment underpins the type and strategy used and if it can or will maximise learning. It's also about how this can affect student motivation and lifelong attitudes to learning. It introduces a discussion space to consider the new challenges facing assessment and the opportunities for creating cultures that privilege sustainable assessment. It is optimistic and aspirational in its design and ambition.
This learning module of seven updates is designed to support teachers to build their understanding of assessment practices in a practical and applied approach to change habits in their classroom. It incorporates a broader perspective of assessment, beyond the immediate evaluative criteria underpinning an accountabiliity discourse. The learning module emphasises assessment for learning strategies and approaches that promote a learning culture and facilitate a continuous improvement mindset.
References
Adie, L., Addison, B., & Lingard, B. (2021, January 13). Assessment and learning: An in-depth analysis of change in one school's assessment culture. Oxford Review of Education, 47(3), 404-422. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2020.1850436
Boud, D., & Soler, R. (2016). Sustainable assessment revisited. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 41(3), 400-413. doi:10.1080/02602938.2015.1018133
Broadfoot, P., Oldfield, A., Sutherland, R., & Timmis, S. (2014). Seeds of change: The potential of the digital revolution to promote enabling assessment. In V. Wyatt-Smith, V. Klenowski, & P. Colbert (Eds.), Designing assessment for quality learning (The Enabling Power of Assessment ed., Vol. 1, pp. 373-386). New York: Springer.
This learning module is designed for teachers at any career stage who are interested in developing their assessment literacy and embedding sustainable assessment practices in their classroom and the wider culture in their context. It presupposes some knowledge and experience regarding the two main types of assessment: assessment for learning (AfL) and assessment of learning (AoL), and a willingness to contribute to a professional learning community focussed on changing classroom assessment habits.
It addresses a number of Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST), including:
1.2.2 Structure teaching programs using research and collegial advice about how students learn.
3.6.2 Evaluate personal teaching and learning programs using evidence, including feedback from students and student assessment data, to inform planning.
5.1.2 Develop, select and use informal and formal, diagnostic, formative and summative assessment strategies to assess student learning.
5.4.2 Use student assessment data to analyse and evaluate student understanding of subject/content, identifying interventions and modifying teaching practice.
Intended Learning Outcomes
In engaging with the updates and the community discussion, participants will be able to:
The anticipated duration of the learning module is a semester (around 23 weeks). In addition to the learning materials and prompts for comments and updates to contribute to the social knowledge of the CECG Assessment Reform Group, there will be 8 scheduled collaboration sessions. These are for participants to share and reflect on how they are incorporating aspects of the course and the observable outcomes from these interventions. These collaborative online sessions are not compulsory but intended to support teachers to develop their reflexive practice in an iterative discourse. The updates can be followed sequentially and participants can work through asynchronously to accommodate workloads and other time commitments.
Participants will not need any other materials, other than teaching and learning programs and relevant syllabus documents for creating and implementing assessment plans.
This learning module is designed to support participants:
It consists of 7 updates, 1 survey instrument and a peer-reviewed project which invites participants to provide a case study that incorporates elements of the learning module. More information is provided in the "Evaluation of Impact" section.
You are contributing to a social knowledge network, focussing on assessment approaches and strategies that are designed to enable learning. Your participation in the course is recognised by fulfilling these requirements:
This will be reflected in the astra-plot, found under the "Analytics" tab. This clip explains how your performance is reflected in the astra-plot.
For participants to register professional learning hours for this course, they need to ensure they complete these set requirements:
Create and implement an assessment plan which demonstrates how you would translate some of the ideas and principles of this course into practice. Use CG Scholar to share your case study. Reflect on your experience planning and implementing the assessment plan and evaluate its impact for student learning.
Rubric: Refer to the checklist below and the Knowledge Process Rubric for an overview of what your work should include. The Knowledge Process Rubric is the one against which others will review your work, and against which you will do your self-review at the completion of your final draft. You can also view this rubric while you draft your work at Creator => Feedback => Reviews => Rubric and at the Rubrics for Peer-Reviewed Works page. The rubric explores four main knowledge processes, the background and rationale for which is described in a number of papers listed here.
Word length: at least 500 words
Media: Include at least 4 media elements, such as images, diagrams, infographics, tables, embedded videos, (either uploaded into CGScholar, or embedded from other sites), web links, PDFs, datasets, or other digital media. Be sure these are well integrated into your work. Explain or discuss each media item in the text of your work. When referring to a video, you should refer to specific points of the video with time codes or the particular aspects of the media object that you want your readers to focus on. Caption each item sourced from the web with a link and be sure to cite all media sources in the references list.
References: Include a References “element” or section with the scholarly articles or books that you have used and referred to in the text, plus any other necessary or relevant references, including websites and media. Use APA 7th edition.
More information regarding General Work Guidelines is available here.
Checklist for completing your peer-reviewed project:
Ensure you have started the project. This prompt to "Start Project" is in the "Evaluation of Impact" section "For the Instructor".
Context is everything
There are broad economic, social and political contexts that help shape assessment practices in schools. Sir Ken Robinson discusses contexts and their significance for education, the role of the teacher and modern assessment practices.
This link takes you to the full transcript and follow-up videos and resources from hundrED taken from an interview entitled "Sir Ken Robinson Compares Human Organisations to Organisms: Education Is A Dynamic System" from April 3, 2017.
Comment: What do you think assessment should focus on? What is the most significant influence on assessment practices in your context, and does this support your view of the purpose of assessment?
Make an Update: Follow the links to read about the different theories such as progressivism, human capital theory and as a post-modern theory, transformative education that can help explain contexts. Make an update discussing how your priorities in creating and understanding assessment have been influenced by these or other theories about education. Make sure you use examples of assessment tasks and norms for their use.
By the end of this update, teachers should be able to:
This update recognises that assessment involves professional judgement and locates student performance on a developmental continuum. Teachers use assessment language that describes student performance and need to know, understand and be able to use assessment related terms and strategies including: reliability, validity, assessment for learning, assessment of learning, standards, performance standards and norm-referenced assessments. This shared practice has implications for students' academic self-concept and wellbeing.
Ways to talk about assessment
Table 1: Types and Processes of Assessment (Brady & Kennedy, 2019, pp 2-3)
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Norm-referenced assessment | Rank orders the performance of individual students. The process compares the performance of groups with similar or different characteristics. It displays the range of performance and enables comparison of different levels of performance. |
| Criterion-referenced assessment | Demonstrates how an individual's performance compares with a predefined criterion. It demonstrates what students know and are able to do; is not used to compare students. |
| Standards-based assessment |
Users criterion referencing to show a student's performance in relation to expected levels of achievement. Usually this is at a specific grade level or stage of schooling. |
| Standardised test | A test that is administered according to a common set of procedures. It is used across systems and states overtime. The results can be reliably compared using norm referenced or criterion referenced processes. |
| Traditional assessment | Usually refers to paper and pencil tests that ask students to choose responses from alternative answers such as multiple choice questions true false questions matching exercises and cloze passages. |
| Alternative assessment | Student centred tasks where students demonstrate their level of achievement by creating a response or a product such as a painting, oral presentation, collaborative projects. |
| Performance-based assessment | An alternative form of assessment that engages students in tasks and activities for example role plays, debates, musical performances, dramatic performance, contributing to group work. Judgement is made through direct observation of the performance. |
| Authentic assessment | Refers to assessment tasks that require students to be engaged in real world activities that connect with daily life and the broader community. the focus is on the context of the task and the stakeholders involved. |
| Portfolio assessment |
An alternative form of assessment based on the collection of work samples or products overtime that demonstrate progress in learning. Criteria or standard for judging performance requires agreement before commencement of the task. |
| Assessment for learning (formative assessment) | Provides feedback to students about their progress. It can take place during the teaching and learning process or as structured feedback on work samples either by the teacher or peers. Such feedback can assist students to improve their learning and can also help teachers to develop new and more effective ways of teaching. |
| Assessment of learning (summative assessment) | Takes place at the end of a unit of work subject or course and will indicate the extent to which expected learning outcomes have been achieved. |
| Reliability | Refers to the assessment’s consistency and stability. The assessment result should be the same irrespective of where when and how the assessment was taken who marked it and when it was marked. The reliability of assessment can be enhanced when possible sources of error are minimised. Multiple assessment tasks, agreed assessment criteria, and the use of moderation procedures all help to ensure that assessment is consistent and therefore reliable. |
| Validity | The extent to which an assessment task accurately reflects the knowledge skills and values being assessed. Tasks linked to curriculum objectives and outcome statements should have a high degree of validity. Such tasks however must also be fair to all students so that the content of the task does not favour one group of students over another. |
Assessment practices can shape student, parent and community beliefs about learning. Geoff Masters suggests this can sometimes happen in unintended ways. He argues that commonly used assessment approaches send unhelpful messages to students.
Read more in his occasional essay (5 minute read) (Masters, 2013):
Comment: Choose from one of the approaches outlined by Masters:
Make a comment outlining some of the unintended consequences of this approach.
Make an Update: Describe an assessment tool, and using Table 1, identify which type(s) and process(es) of assessment it is. Then referring to the Masters (2013) paper, explain which approach to assessment it uses. Suggest ways to maximise its effectiveness to support student learning.
References
Brady, L. & Kennedy, K. (2019). Assessment and Reporting: Celebrating student achievement. Pearson.
Masters, G. (October 2013). Towards a growth mindset in assessment. ACER Occasional Essays. Retrieved from: https://www.acer.org/au/discover/article/towards-a-growth-mindset-in-assessment
By the end of this update, teachers should be able to:
While formative assessment (AfL) and summative assessment (AoL) serve different purposes, they are both concerned with learning.
Daisy Christodoulou discusses contemporary approaches using AfL and AoL, and the key features of a successful assessment system that integrates these two main types of assessment.
Christodoulou makes the statement that not all assessment can be graded, and often we over-grade in the classroom. She suggests "we need a way to integrate formative and summative assessments, so pupils can see both the end goal and the steps that get you there" (0:21 min).
Dylan Wiliam outlines 5 key strategies of formative assessment (AfL) that meet this need to support students' learning, so they can see the end goal and the steps to get there.
Comment: What is the balance of assessment for and of learning in your teaching and learning program? Give examples of each. What would you like the balance to look like across your school?
Make an Update: In this clip "Re-claiming formative assessment" (Cambridge University Press & Assessment, 2017), Christodoulou distinguishes between deliberate and naive practice (10:35mins) using the analogy of how you would measure your progress, if you wanted to run a marathon (introduced at 0:42mins). Using a learning plan you have devised, explain how you would like to or have provided the students with opportunities for deliberate practice.
References
Cambridge University Press and Assessment. (25 Nov 2017). Re-claiming formative assessment [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJco-frAql8
At the end of this update, teachers will have:
Humanity is at the tipping point. From climate change and inequality to social fragmentation and political extremism – we have to change the course of our future. And the most powerful weapon at our disposal is education.
(Monash University (2013)
What's the role of lifelong learning in assessment?
Balancing assessment practices between AfL and AoL is challenging. Schools have had to absorb policies that push for test-based accountabilities, but are also concerned for student wellbeing in meeting the demands from high-stakes external standardised tests.
Singapore, known for its world-class educational performance, is addressing this tension between meeting high expectations on external exams and developing sustainable assessment practices that teach students to self-assess and self-regulate their learning (Boud & Soler, 2016).
Sustainable assessment “meets the needs of the present in terms of the demands of formative and summative assessment, but ... also prepares students to meet their own future learning needs” (Boud & Soler, 2016, p. 400). It sustains learning beyond school.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has opened a debate on a new social contract with education. Part of this debate invites new perspectives where assessment goes beyond large-scale assessments that build individual knowledge, to strengthening social networks that collectively meet the challenges of climate change, inequalities and political extremism. In re-imagining our futures, assessment should focus on significant content and learning that can help students become part of a "peaceful, just and sustainable world" (UNESCO, 2021, p. 64). You can read more about it here. It urges educators to consider the future learning needs of the world and act now. Sustainable assessment supports life-long and life-wide learning.
Comment: In "Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education", UNESCO (2021) is asking three questions: What should be continued? What should be abandoned? And what needs to be creatively invented afresh? Answer one of these questions, reflecting on your own concepts and values about assessment in your context.
Make an Update: Redesign an assessment task incorporating sustainable assessment practices. This may be embedded in the learning intentions, the assessment criteria, the materials and research the task prompts students to access and use for their learning. Uphold a PDF of the task or provide a short video where you explain the task requirements to your students.
References
Boud, D., & Soler, R. (2016). Sustainable assessment revisited. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 41(3), 400-413. doi:10.1080/02602938.2015.1018133
Monash University (2013, December 13). A different lens snapshot: Creating a social contract for education together. [Video] YouTube.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=329w4Yemq40&t=306s
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707
At the end of this update, participants will have considered and reflected on:
Depending on the cohort's career stage and assessment literacy, participants may feel it a worthwhile opportunity to reflect on their learning in a professional learning log. This could include reflections on the three learning outcomes outlined above and the engagement with new assessment paradigms in considering the needs of their students.
Content, then process
In creating assessment plans, we need to decide what kinds of teaching will make the greatest impact on student learning and then work out the best way to make these changes to our teaching. This is what "content, then process" means (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, p. 14).
We know from the evidence that classroom formative assessment (AfL) has a significant impact on how much students learn and that there are practical techniques available to develop AfL in classrooms. In the following clip (4:24 mins), Wiliam outlines 3 principles and 5 strategies from the research that impact student learning.
Here's a recap on AfL with some examples for the classroom.
Check-in with this survey.
How regularly do you use these formative strategies in the classroom? Use the survey tool to scan your teaching use of AfL.
The process for embedding AfL strategies is like preparing for a marathon: break up the training, but remember the overall goal. Making the change to classroom habits is challenging and it requires support and accountability. Wiliam and Leahy (2015) suggest these action steps to change classroom habits:
With a colleague or a mentor, discuss your reflections on the questions in the survey. Then, work together to determine one or two formative assessment techniques that you could try in your classroom or school. Use Wiliam and Leahy's (2015) 4 step plan to shift your teaching practice.
All teachers need to improve their practice; not because they are not good enough, but because they can be better (Wiliam & Leahy, 2015, p. 20).
Comment: What AfL strategies did you identify and how will you apply them? What are the barriers to applying these AfL strategies to your own or your school’s practice?
Make an Update: After you have implemented your chosen AfL strategy, share with the community your reflections on how it went:
• What did you observe?
• How did the students/teachers respond?
• What was the impact?
References
Wiliam, D. (18 April, 2020) What formative is and isn't. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfAutEWaqOE
Wiliam, D and Leahy, S. (2015) Embedding formative assessment: Practical techniques for K-12 classrooms. Learning Sciences International.
In this update, teachers will be able to:
The survey tool, attached to this update, is discussed in the lefthand side of this update and guides participants to consider how they are using assessment in the classroom.
Assessment of learning (AoL), or summative assessment, also plays a key role in teaching and learning. It provides information to students and teachers, as well as the wider community, including parents, about student achievements. It also contributes to teachers' and system accountability (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2019).
When teachers are involved in constructing assessment tasks, they need to ensure the assessment is valid and reliable. Principles for ensuring the validity and the reliability of the task are set out below.
Valid tasks:
(Bonner, 2013)
Reliable tasks:
(Parkes, 2013)
Common assessment errors (Brady & Kennedy, 2019, p.67)
- rewarding students for effort rather than achievement
- allowing student achievement in one area or task influence judgement in other areas ('halo effect' or its opposite)
- prejudging based on real or imagined ability rather than results
- stereotyping on the basis of race, gender or social class
- providing similar results on similar tasks for similar outcomes
- giving students marks within a limited range rather than using the full scope to differentiate (central tendency error)
Try some or all of the questions in this quiz here.
Comment: Do you think the quiz is reliable, valid and fair as a trial exam on literacy and numeracy standards for teaching students? Use the principles for ensuring validity and reliability in your comment. What would constitute fair in this context?
Make an Update: Research various criteria used for selecting and constructing AoL tasks, for example, using the Understanding by Design framework or another framework you are familiar with in your teaching practice. Share the priorities used in this planning framework and explain how they help to ensure that assessment methods are reliable, valid, and fair. Include the structures and/ or systems utilised to avoid making errors in evaluating student achievements.
References
ABC (2015). 1 in 10 student teachers fail this test: Can you pass? ABC News. Retrieved from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-01/literacy-numeracy-teachers-test-quiz/6991246?nw=0&r=HtmlFragment
Brady, L. & Kennedy, K. (2019). Assessment and reporting: Celebrating student achievement. Pearson.
Bonner, S. (2013). Validity in classroom assessment: Purposes, properties, and principles. Chapter 6. Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment (ed) McMillan, J.H. Sage Publications
Duchesne, S., & McMaugh, A. (2019). Education Psychology for Learning and Teaching. South Melbourne, Victoria: Cengage Learning.
Parkes, J. (2013). Reliability in classroom assessment. Chapter 7. Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment (ed) McMillan, J.H. Sage Publications
In this update, participants will
This update reviews the strategy of feedback. Feedback studies show very high effects on learning (Evidence for Learning, n.d.). The update reinforces using the three questions that frame feedback to improve student learning:
It identifies the four levels of feedback:
And it reviews 4 strategies to improve feedback:
It also recognises the importance of praising effort to support a growth mindset.
Why is feedback so crucial for learning?
Dylan Wiliam reviews why we use feedback and its integral role for learners.
A short animated video describing what effective feedback is, how it can be used, and the potential impact on student learning.
What does the evidence tell us?
This feedback factsheet (AITSL, 2017) outlines the main points discussed in the clips, including the three questions that frame feedback to improve student learning:
Hattie and Timperley (2007) describe four levels of feedback.
Table 1: 4 strategies to improve feedback (AITSL, 2017):
|
Learning intentions and success criteria |
Learning intentions and success criteria are used to clarify the focus of the learning and to measure success. This resource provides guidance on what to consider when introducing learning intentions and success criteria, practical techniques and links to further information. |
|
Peer feedback |
Peer feedback can be a powerful tool for enhancing student understanding and growth. This resource provides guidance on effective peer feedback practices, what to consider when introducing these into the classroom and links to further information. |
|
Professional learning communities |
PLCs provide an avenue for teachers to work collaboratively to translate research into practice, develop and refine new strategies, plan learning sequences, analyse data and evaluate impact. This resource provides guidance on what to consider when introducing professional learning communities, practical techniques and links to further information. |
|
Questioning |
Effective questioning strategies help provide the teacher with immediate information on student understanding. Different types of questions can be used to check factual knowledge, encourage deeper critical thinking, or drive conversations between students. Responses can help the teacher determine where students are, and where the learning needs to go next. |
These factsheets provide more information on each of the strategies outlined in Table 1: 4 strategies to improve feedback (AITSL, 2017).
Praise for effort
Comment: Give examples of feedback you have provided to students (or supported them to experience) over the last 2 to 3 days. Suggest which level of feedback and strategy these examples reflect. Discuss any patterns or surprises.
Make an Update: Reflect on the types of praise teachers give students and their potential impact, or alternatively, share your experience in implementing one of the feedback strategies in the AITSL (2017) factsheets.
References
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2017). Feedback. Improve Practice. Retrieved from: www.aitsl.edu.au/feedback
Evidence for Learning (n.d.) Feedback. Retrieved from: https://evidenceforlearning.org.au/the-toolkits/the-teaching-and-learning-toolkit/all-approaches/feedback/
Hattie, J & Timperley, H, 2007, ‘The Power of Feedback’, Review of Educational Research vol. 77, no. 1, pp 81-112.
In this update, participants will:
Australian Broadcasting Ccommission (ABC) (2015). 1 in 10 student teachers fail this test: Can you pass? ABC News. Retrieved from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-01/literacy-numeracy-teachers-test-quiz/6991246?nw=0&r=HtmlFragment
Adie, L., Addison, B., & Lingard, B. (2021, January 13). Assessment and learning: An in-depth analysis of change in one school's assessment culture. Oxford Review of Education, 47(3), 404-422. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2020.1850436
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2017). Feedback. Improve Practice. Retrieved from: www.aitsl.edu.au/feedback
Bonner, S. (2013). Validity in classroom assessment: Purposes, properties, and principles. Chapter 6. Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment (ed) McMillan, J.H. Sage Publications
Boud, D., & Soler, R. (2016). Sustainable assessment revisited. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 41(3), 400-413. doi:10.1080/02602938.2015.1018133
Brady, L. & Kennedy, K. (2019). Assessment and Reporting: Celebrating student achievement. Pearson.
Broadfoot, P., Oldfield, A., Sutherland, R., & Timmis, S. (2014). Seeds of change: The potential of the digital revolution to promote enabling assessment. In V. Wyatt-Smith, V. Klenowski, & P. Colbert (Eds.), Designing assessment for quality learning (The Enabling Power of Assessment ed., Vol. 1, pp. 373-386). New York: Springer.
Cambridge University Press and Assessment. (25 Nov 2017). Re-claiming formative assessment [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aJco-frAql8
Duchesne, S., & McMaugh, A. (2019). Education Psychology for Learning and Teaching. South Melbourne, Victoria: Cengage Learning.
Evidence for Learning (n.d.) Feedback. Retrieved from: https://evidenceforlearning.org.au/the-toolkits/the-teaching-and-learning-toolkit/all-approaches/feedback/
Hattie, J & Timperley, H, 2007, ‘The Power of Feedback’, Review of Educational Research. vol. 77, no. 1, pp 81-112.
Masters, G. (October 2013). Towards a growth mindset in assessment. ACER Occasional Essays. Retrieved from: https://www.acer.org/au/discover/article/towards-a-growth-mindset-in-assessment
Monash University (13 Dec 2013) A different lens snapshot: Creating a social contract for education together. [Video] YouTube.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=329w4Yemq40&t=306
Parkes, J. (2013). Reliability in classroom assessment. Chapter 7. Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment (ed) McMillan, J.H. Sage Publications
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707
Wiliam, D. (18 April, 2020) What formative is and isn't. [Video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfAutEWaqOE
Wiliam, D and Leahy, S. (2015) Embedding formative assessment: Practical techniques for K-12 classrooms. Learning Sciences International.