Professional Development (PD) is a critical aspect of our adult career life. PD is a form of learning that targets a specific area or skill. With that said, PD provides opportunities to learn, improve, and excel in a skill or an ability. From my personal experience, PD is not necessarily offered by all organizations and there are many discrepancies among departments within the same organizations. Some organizations do not offer PD opportunities, while for other firms, it depends on employee motivation and personal search. 

Based on this notion, I decided to explore the topic of professional development and its importance, focusing on the lens of adult authentic learning. In my previous projects, I have focused on adult online learning, authentic and formative assessments, and differentiated learning. I am a proponent of lifelong learning; thus, I am interested in understanding how adults can apply knowledge to their everyday tasks. Specifically, I would like to explore theories and applications that support professional development, in the form of a degree, certificate, badges, micro-credentials, or seminar, where adults can showcase their gained knowledge in real-life situations.

PD has a broad scope and can be related to teachers/ instructors/ faculty needs for improving "students' " learning experience, adults/individuals for advancing their skills, researchers for supporting their path, and industry/ field needs for accomplishing desired outcomes. In general, throughout the project, the terms students and learners will be used interchangeably, referring always to adult professionals. Overall, PD is a complex phenomenon that many researchers have extensively studied. Many models and approaches have been established to enhance human development and improve the efficiency of these learning opportunities (Eun, 2018). Grounded in the theories of Bandura, Vygotsky, and Knowles, my goal is to explore ways to ensure the efficiency of learning opportunities, including e-PD programs (online PD programs), offered to adults, at any occupation, as a means to advance their careers and skills.

To start, Media 1 provides a short introduction to the PD concept and answers why it is important and what processes need to be followed to be successfully implemented. It also covers how PD should be designed to meet its goal. One of the important comments, of the video below, is that “PD should leverage adult learning principles to engage learners” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2018). Engaging learners of any age should always be the priority while designing materials, in any educational setting.

Media 1 [Video]: What is Professional Development? (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2018)

In summary, the goal of this project is to delve into Professional Development (PD) topic, by focusing on adult professional learners. The project will analyze the main theories that play a key role in designing and delivering successful PD to adult professionals. To achieve that, I delve into the underlying concepts and theories behind professional development. To enhance comprehension of the topic, I provide an extensive list of the benefits and challenges of PD and the related theories. The focus then shifts to research-based applications of PD within the interpretive methods. Finally, the project concludes with a brief discussion, focusing on key takeaways and recommendations of this project.

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Media 2 [Image]: The Science of Professional Development (Lacey, 2020)

Many researchers have extensively studied Professional Development (PD). Most recently, online professional development has sparked interest, while the focus of most of the research has been on teacher PD. As illustrated in Media 2, PD's key elements are adult learning theories, facilitation, pedagogy, content, and instructional design. For instance, in Ching and Hursh’s (2014) research (conducted over a period of 3 years), they observed that by incorporating pedagogical approaches to PD programs, participants improve their outcomes. Specifically, they observed “a shift from ‘support group’ discussions to more ‘intellectual community’ knowledge building” (Ching & Hursh, 2014; Seifert & Mandzuk, 2006). Their observations concluded that learning is acquired by collaboration (social constructivism), while authenticity and practical assessments (connection to real-world applications) are paramount (Ching & Hursh, 2014; Teräs & Kartoğlu, 2017; Webster-Wright, 2010) for successful PD. The last point closely aligns with Kowles’ key principles of adult learning (andragogy).

• Defying Professional Development

To start, professional development is defined as “activities that are intended to engage professionals in new learning about their professional practice” (Teräs & Kartoğlu, 2017). To distinguish the terms PD and Professional Learning (PL), Teräs and Kartoğlu (2017) defined PL as “an intrinsic phenomenon”.

To successfully implement PD, Fogarty, and Pete (2004, p. 63) recommended the following critical qualities (as cited by Zepeda et al. 2013):

1. Sustained: training is implemented over time.
2. Job-embedded: training occurs and/or continues at the work site.
3. Interactive: training invites, involves, and engages participants.
4. Collegial: training builds and supports a community of learners.
5. Integrated: training that is eclectic (web-based, online, text, face-to-face).

As PD requires interactivity, participant engagement, and community building, three major theories arise in the discussion. The social cognitive theory, the sociocultural theory, and adult learning (adragogy). All aforementioned theories are closely related to the major elements and components of PD. 

• Defying Andragogy

Andragogy as defined by Knowles is “the art and science of helping adults learn” and he listed major differences between adult and child learners (Machynska and Boiko, 2020; Saunders, 2020). Knowles' assumptions are self-concept, adult learner experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learn, and motivation to learn (Knowles, 1984).

The term andragogy was first introduced by the German gymnasium teacher Alexander Kapp (1800-1869) (Loeng, 2017). In his book (1833), Alexander focused on Plato’s educational theory, distinguishing children and adult education and highlighting the difference between adult learning (Loeng, 2017). Thorndike, Bregman, Tilton, and Woodyard have also contributed to the field, with Thorndike focusing on adult learning from a behavioral perspective (Merriam, 2001). In detail, he compared adult and young learners’ abilities to learn by testing them under time constraints on various tasks (Merriam, 2001). Thorndike’s results revealed that young learners performed better than adult learners (Lorge, 1940). Lorge (1952) disputed Thorndike’s findings by stating that “Study after study has demonstrated that aging beyond the twenties is associated with a reduction in speed of performance. The rate is reduced, but not the underlying ability.”

Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997) defined andragogy as “the art and science of teaching adults” and he provided the underlying assumptions of the theory. As mentioned in Media 3, andragogy is the study of how adults learn and how it differs from children's learning. In the video below [Media 3], Knowles’s six assumptions are presented:

• Need to Know: "adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking it to learn it"
• Self-Concept: "have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, for their own lives"
• Adult Learner Experience: "instructors should create a learning environment that is encouraging and conducive to learners sharing their personal experiences, ideas, and opinions"
• Readiness to Learn: "aligning learning with developmental concepts"
• Orientation to Learning: "adult learners are motivated to learn when given authentic learning activities"
• Motivation to Learn: "adult learners are intrinsically motivated to learn"

Media 3 [Video]: Knowles’s adult learning Theory (PHILO-notes, 2022).

To differentiate from pedagogy theory, Media 4 summarizes the differences in the instructional approaches and methods used by each learner, which can play a crucial role in addressing these six assumptions (Knowles, 1977). Based on Media 4, the adult learner [or the professional learner] has distinguished characteristics compared to the youth learner. The 'professional learner' takes responsibility for their learning, understanding what they need to know and why, incorporating personal or professional experiences throughout their learning, and preparing themselves to apply their knowledge to work so they can successfully perform the work-assigned tasks. Their driving force is their inner motivation to advance themselves professionally.

Media 4 [Image]: Adult Learning Processes: Pedagogy and Andragogy (Knowles, 1977).

• Defying Social Cognitive Theory & Sociocultural Theory

The social cognitive theory is focused on the relationship between individuals and the environment. The sociocultural theory explores the influence of the environment on the individual. As cited by Bandura (1997) social cognitive theory reflects the “internal personal factors in the form of cognitive, affective, and biological events; behaviors; and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants that influence one another bidirectionally” (as cited by Eun, 2018). Cognitive theories focus on developing models that explain the mental processes within one's mind (Danish & Gresalfi, 2018). Bandura suggested that learning occurs from observations through the four processes of attentional, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational (Fryling et al., 2011). 

In contrast, sociocultural theories do not separate the individual from the environment. Sociocultural theories explain phenomena taking into consideration the "context in which the individual is interacting" (Danish & Gresalfi, 2018). Established by the psychologist Lev Vygotsky, his theory focuses on the “interdependence between individual and social processes in the construction of knowledge” (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192).

• Major Models of PD

The social cognitive theory, the sociocultural theory, and the adult learning theory can be applied to PD major models. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986), as cited by Shabani (2016), developed a five-stage heuristic model categorizing professional learners into novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert.  As listed by Eun (2008) and based on Guskey's (2000) model, PD's types are training, observation/assessment, involvement in a development/improvement process, inquiry/action research, mentoring,  study groups, and individually guided activities. Shabani (1986), in his research, connected Guskey's types with Vygotsky’s theories. A summarization of the key comments is provided in the table below [Media 5]

Media 5 [Table]: Interfaces between Vygotsky’s theories and models of professional development  (Shabani, 1986).

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In this section, a synopsis of Vygotsky's theory of Sociocultural Cognitive Development, Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory, and Knowles’ Adult Learning (Andragogy) limitations will be provided.

• Criticizing Theories

Starting with Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Development, Media 6 summarizes the theory's major limitations. Similar to andragogy, Vygotsky’s theory is criticized for its lack of empirical evidence. It is also criticized for not taking into account active participation in learning where slower rates of cognitive growth are observed. On the same page, Vygotsky's theory does not explain why some children learn at a slower pace while they socially interact with others. Vygotsky's belief that learning derives from language has been censured by children's abilities to learn from a multitude of activities.  

Media 6 [Video]: Criticisms on Vygotsky's Theory of Sociocultural Cognitive Development (Quick Psychology, 2023).

Comparing Vygotsky’s theory to Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory [Media 7], both theories fail to address the biological impact and personality traits that are critical for explaining behaviors and human development. Changes in the environment does not necesserily means observed changes to individual's behavior or traits. In addition, Bandura's theory does not clarify how each factor (environment, person, trait) influences an individual's behavior. Also, it does not specify if there is a factor that influences more an individual's behavior compared to another. For instance, past experiences may play a significant role in individual's behavior, as well as emotions, motivations, and others.  

Media 7 [Image]: Strengths and Weaknesses of Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (Social Cognitive Theory Application Product 3, 2014).

To continue and regarding andragogy theory, Knowles’ second assumption of “self-content,” has been criticized by researchers. Specifically, it is argued that not only adult learners can be considered self-driven and independent. In his article, Darbyshire (1993) argues that self-directed learning is not measurable by age, but rather by degree. Elias (1979) and McKenzie (1979) were debating regarding the necessity of those terms and the value this distinction adds to the field (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). McKenzie (1979) understood andragogy as an educational continuity and Elias (1979) as a “misguided attempt” (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). In addition, Darbyshire (1993) criticizes the third assumption “adult learner experiences” by mentioning that “children’s life experiences” should be considered of equal value. Levitt (1979), in his critique, provides Knowles’ revision of andragogy. In detail, Knowles revised the title article from “Andragogy versus Pedagogy” to “From Pedagogy to Andragogy” and explained his intention regarding these two terms. Knowles’s intent was not to create a dichotomy but rather to present alternatives to didactic learning approaches. Teachers may use the pedagogy or andragogy approach based on the situation and the “relevant assumptions” (Levitt, 1979). Specifically, Knowles’ revision focused on explaining the different levels of andragogy and how the theory is applied based on variables such as the “degree of voluntariness, learner’s experience of and prior knowledge of the content, the need for quality control in assessing learner outcomes, the presence or absence of institutional and professional constraints, and general course goals” (Rachal, 2002).

• Criticizing PD 

In general, and based on the author's experience, there are many papers regarding PD and education but most of them are focusing on teachers' opportunities for professional development. PD's critiques include different aspects, such as limitations of the available research, drawbacks of the available assessment techniques, and the limited evaluation methods currently used. Additionally, taking into account a variety of occupations, PD can be expensive, and may not yield the expected results. It is also hard to create a PD that can cover a broad range of interests. In addition, creating engaging and related materials that will meet different needs can be challenging. The designer's role is critical to ensure alignment of pedagogical objectives and desired PD outcomes. At the same time, organizations may lose their employees, after the completion of the PD, while the timing of offering PD opportunities can be critical. Another vital component of successful PD implementation is “finding” the balance between too much or too little information, materials, and practice time, amongst others (Mataya et al. 2019). Finally, incorporating the online environment component, [Media 8] showcases the benefits and limitations of e-PD (online Professional Development). There is an overlap between e-PD and in-person PD, however, a clear distinction [between both] is the element of access to technology and the support needed for both trainers and trainees.

Media 8 [Table]: Benefits and Drawbacks of Online Professional Development (PD) (Cleaver et al., 2020)

Implementing Professional Development is challenging as individuals have different needs and interests. Even if there are no financial constraints, creating PD opportunities should be designed to provide a clear indication to the professional of why is needed and how it will be used after completion. While technological advances, specifically AI can provide personalized and adaptive learning, the disconnect from collaborative learning can significantly affect PD's successful implementation (Ingvarson et al., 2005). Costs associated with technology use, or outsourcing services from third parties devoted to providing training materials and instructors can be expensive (Hammond, 2005). However, creating in-house materials, it is also resource intensive. Finally, PD should tie everything together. With that said, a performance review should be connected with PD opportunities, allowing adult professionals to understand why new learning is needed and how they progress over time in their careers. 

Interpretive research focuses on explaining phenomena through the lens of making sense rather than testing different scenarios (Pelz, n.d.). In that sense, each hypothesis is shaped by the individual’s experiences and social contexts and the meaning that applies to the observations. People are complex and can interpret the same reality in multiple ways based on their experiences and understanding.

As described by Quinlan (2017) "Interpretive research, often called qualitative research, situates meaning-making practices at the center of scientific exploration ... The researcher does not begin with concepts that are determined a priori but instead conducts research from experiences in fieldwork (e.g., naturalistic, in vivo) with an emergent design (e.g., sampling, data collection, coding, and analysis)". Based on Quinlal's (2017) work one of the biggest advantages of the interpretive research approach is the diversity of views and opinions. Researchers can explore and understand the same phenomena through multiple lenses and meanings. Additionally, it can produce high-quality research that focuses on personalization in aspects of meanings, motivations, and subjectivity. At the same time and in contrast, the results might not be easily applicable to the population. The research results may also lack consistency and might include unintended biases due to their subjectivity.

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Professional Development Applications

In research conducted by Hooper et al. (2022), they examined teachers’ perceptions of their Professional Development (PD) experiences based on Bandura’s social cognitive theory. They used data from qualitative semi-structured interviews with a sample of five novice teachers. The interviews consisted of seven questions and they incorporated related prompts throughout the process. This helped the researchers to understand teachers' perceptions of the PD program. They analyzed the results of the interviews using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Based on their analysis, they concluded that the content relevancy to teachers' needs as well as the methods utilized by the instructors were critical for PD’s success. Additionally, the research revealed that individuals’ interest and willingness to learn, as well as instructors’ engagement significantly impacted the effectiveness of PD.

One of the adult learning (andragogy) assumptions, is learners' motivation and interest to learn. As Carlson and Gadio (2002) stated in their work “When designing or implementing any teacher professional development program for technology, it is important to situate that program within the context of a theoretical framework for adult learning.” Bullington and his colleagues (2021) used the framework of andragogy to examine the impact of the learning communities to retain adult learners. The target audience was undergraduate engineering and engineering technology students enrolled in a seminar course designed particularly for this research (Bullington et al., 2021). Using andragogy assumptions to design the seminar course, they gathered data (n=24) for each semester (Fall 2018 and Spring 2019). The researchers concluded that learners were more engaged as they were part of their learning journey and could better understand the relevance and application of the selected topics to their future careers (Bullington et al., 2021).

To highlight Knowles' assumptions, in a study conducted by Ellis (2002), andragogy theory was implemented in a graduate-level course. The research was conducted for the Web Technologies course offered to 58 working professionals (PD) in two consecutive semesters (Ellis, 2002). Based on students’ and instructor’s feedback, the application of Knowles’s assumptions was successful in practice. Specifically, learners comment on the importance of “orientation to learning”, “Adult Learner Experience”, “Readiness to Learn”, and “Motivation to Learn.”. No evidence was detected regarding the “Need to Know”, while the “Self-Concept” was more apparent in their ratings rather than in their comments (Ellis, 2002).

Everington (2009), in her research, applied the interpretive approach to the professional development of teachers of religious education. Her study group encompassed 16 individuals from different academic and ethnic backgrounds, and it was conducted in ten months (with four phases). The first phase was to collect data on personal and professional beliefs, views, and experiences (Autumn term), by utilizing discussions and interview techniques. The second phase was individual observations during each session of the professional development (Spring term – 6 weeks). The third phase was the evaluation of the whole process, by undertaking interviews with the four individuals involved in the process. Finally, the fourth phase was the group evaluation of the impact of the PD. In her conclusions, she highlighted the importance of community of practice and collaborative learning in student teachers' PD. Her work is based on Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Development through the lens of social interaction, cognitive processes, and the role of the environment in learning and development. Collaborative learning, self-regulation, and reflective practice are the milestones of the successful implementation of PD programs. Similarly, it is paramount for the designer and instructor to be familiar with the underlying frameworks when they design and deliver PD opportunities, independently of the selected approach (Seminar, Certificate, Case Study, Mentoring, Coaching, Reflective Supervision, Self-Driven learning [online, in-person, hybrid], Workshops, Consultation, Community of Practice, etc.).

In general, PD is of critical importance for professionals to succeed in their career endeavors. It is hard for an adult who has a busy life with multiple obligations to devote time to learning content that is not engaging and practical. Nowadays, the demands of quality performance and navigating through an ever-changing and dynamic working environment are high. Taking into consideration the massive tech industry layoffs of 2023-2024, competition among candidates has increased. Organizations search for candidates with an existing skill set that can excel through available PD. 

While not all organizations offer PD opportunities, there are various resources adult professionals can utilize to stay up-to-date with industry needs. Unfortunately, not all of them are useful or meet their needs. The role of education within PD opportunities has the critical responsibility of motivating adults to start and complete their professional development journey, as well as filling the gaps between market needs and learning. Through my personal experience, PD is a continuous effort to build your personal 'portfolio' of skills and experiences. 

To bridge the gap between institutes and organizations,  PD connections in the form of certificates, seminars, etc. can be created. Currently, LinkedIn, Coursera, among other e-Learning Platforms offer a variety of resources, incorporating badges, certificates, and stackable degree opportunities. The issue that arises is how effective and representative the acquired skills are in those educational offerings. In addition, companies such as 360 Training, Training Solutions, and others can design targeted materials to cater organization's needs. However, the challenging aspect is to measure the success of the PD and not only focus on the completion rates. 

Designing PD is as challenging as designing a course. The decision on the assessment types, the selected evaluation methods, the form of offering, the multimodalities and multiliteracies, and others are critical for PD's successful implementation. With that said, when developing and designing PD, it is crucial for designers to incorporate relevant educational theories, particularly those that align with adult learning principles. In that way, they ensure that the PD materials are tailored to meet the adult learner's needs. This includes but is not limited to, considering theories such as andragogy, experiential learning, social cognitive theory, sociocultural theory, self-directed learning, and others. By incorporating these theories into the design process, the created PD materials can be relevant, engaging, and applicable to adults for effective learning experiences and measurable results.